Truce with the Taliban: What Price for Peace in Pakistan?

April 13^th 2009 was a dark day for Pakistan. After 18 months of violence in the Swat Valley, the Pakistani government approved a ceasefire agreement that ceded control of the district in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP) to Taliban militants and allowed them to impose Sharia (Islamic law). The inability of the army to control militancy in the region, an estimated thousand civilian deaths from army shelling and Taliban beheadings, and high-profile suicide attacks in Lahore and Islamabad have made both local people and politicians desperate for peace. However, if the government expected Taliban fighters to lay down their arms, they will be sorely disappointed: within hours of the legislation being passed, Taliban militants had raided the neighbouring district of Buner, giving them a foothold just 60 miles from Islamabad. 

The US invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 should have spelled the end for the Taliban, a terrorist group that combined militant Islam with Pashtun tribal codes. However, a variety of factors have enabled Taliban resurgence both sides of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border. Firstly, Al Qaeda sponsored and trained not only Taliban fighters but also those engaged in jihad (holy war) in Kashmir. Keen for a constant supply of militants for this proxy war with India, Pakistan’s army and intelligence services (the ISI) provided refuge to Al Qaeda and Taliban officers fleeing Afghanistan. Rather than handing them over to the US for interrogation, militants were allowed to re-establish their training camps in Pakistan’s tribal areas. They were provided with weapons and finance, and shared intelligence with the ISI. 

America’s failure to reconstruct Afghanistan after the invasion was also to blame in the Taliban’s revival. In 2001, expectations were high that US troops would stay in Afghanistan to help rebuild the country’s infrastructure and state institutions, in particular the police, army and judiciary. When this did not occur and Afghanistan fell instead to warlord control, disillusionment amongst ordinary people was rife. Caught between the warring warlord factions, their corruption and extortion on one side, and the Taliban on the other, many people began to support the Taliban in the belief that they could at least restore law and order. The Taliban was able to offer regular salaries to men in regions with no alternative employment and, in the absence of state-run schools, madrassas often provided the only source of education. 

The influence of Taliban control in NWFP is inevitably felt most by people on the ground. In January 2009 alone, 400 girls’ schools were closed in the Swat Valley. Women have been banned from the markets and public places, music shops and barbers have been closed, and street floggings, one of the most abhorrent images of Taliban-era Afghanistan, have made their reappearance. Perhaps of most concern to the international community is that citizens no longer have the right of appeal to Pakistan’s supreme court; the religious police squads have, in many cases literally, become judge, jury and executioner. 

Taliban resurgence in Pakistan also impacts on the stability of the region as a whole. Suicide attacks and the shift of power within Pakistan threatens the viability of the national government, showing it to be weak and ineffective. This apparent power vacuum offers extreme political parties the opportunity to gain legitimate power in Pakistan through elections. The security situation in Afghanistan cannot improve whilst militants train across the border and travel back and forth freely with the assistance of the ISI. Taliban camps are training militants not only for localised attacks but also for jihad in Kashmir, Uzbekistan and further afield. Suicide attacks in Bali, Madrid, London and Mumbai can all be linked back to groups training under the protection of Al Qaeda and the Taliban within Pakistan.

Perhaps the greatest threat of the Taliban’s rise in Pakistan is not, however, conventional suicide bombings but the possibility of nuclear attack. As early as 1998, bin Laden stated that the acquisition of nuclear weapons was “a religious duty”. He met with Abdul Qadeer Khan, the founder of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program, prior to 9/11, and in 2004 Khan was found guilty of selling nuclear plans to Libya, Iran and North Korea. The nuclear development programme in Pakistan may theoretically be controlled by the military, but they are either unable or unwilling to prevent the selling of information and technology to the highest bidder. The consequence of losing Pakistan to the Taliban, therefore, is of great concern to us all. 

The solutions to Pakistan’s problems are far from straightforward; they will inevitably be expensive, complicated and take years to achieve measurable success. The first thing needed is substantial, ongoing investment. Whilst the economy fails in Afghanistan or Pakistan, the salaries offered by militant groups will continue to look attractive. Nothing beats poverty as a breeding ground for extremism, and those living in refugee camps along the border among the poorest on earth. Investment in infrastructure projects, especially road building, electricity and water supplies, demonstrates that foreign powers are taking a long-term interest in the region. The Taliban has no capacity or interest in community development, and so by investing in these areas alongside local governments, influence can be gained in the battle for hearts and minds. 

Improved security is also essential for stability. Both during the 1990s and in this latest revival, the Taliban gained ground offering stability; in communities ravished by war, corruption and exploitation, this is a vital card to play. A greater presence of UN personnel on both sides of the border, providing Islamabad can be convinced to co-operate, would stem the flow of militants and raise local confidence. Troop presence musts go hand in hand with ongoing training of both Pakistan and Afghanistan’s armies and their police forces so that they build on their skills and are better able to protect their citizens from militancy. 

Finally, the international community needs to simultaneously put pressure on, and offer support to, the Pakistani government to clamp down on extremism. Constructive dialogue with India must be sold as the only path for Kashmir, economic policy must focus on job creation, and the ISI must be brought under control of parliament so it is accountable. Lastly, Pakistan’s moderate parties need to be built up so that they can offer viable alternatives to the extremists at election time. Winning elections within a democratic system gives militants political legitimacy and enables them to use the institutions of state to further their radical goals. As long as we fail to encourage and support a capable, moderate opposition to give voters genuine choice in elections, we are all complicit in Pakistan’s truce with the Taliban.

Timeline

December 2001 US declares victory over Taliban in Afghanistan.

September 2007 Fighting begins in Swat Valley between Taliban militants and the Pakistani army

September 2008 Suicide bombing kills 54 at the Marriott hotel in Islamabad

December 2008 Swat Valley captured by the Taliban

January 2009 Taliban closes 400 schools for girls in the Swat Valley

March 2009 Militants attacks in Lahore and Islamabad

April 2009 Parliament approves ceding control of Swat Valley to Taliban; Taliban militants move into Buner.

This article originally appeared in the Taboo issue of Asian Geographic (www.asiangeo.com)

The Mughals at Home: Architecture and Imperial Ideology in the Indian Subcontinent

What links Bill Gates and the Indian ruler, Akbar the Great? Put simply, whilst the first is the leading mogul of today, the Mughal ruler Akbar, with his expansive, wealthy empire and monopoly on power, gave later moguls their name. The Mughal kings ruled an empire that stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal. They first came to power in the 16^th century and their golden age ended with the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707. The Mughals’ familial lands were in Fergana (now in Kyrgyzstan) and so they had no direct claim to the empire they forged; their conquests in the Subcontinent began only after attempts to control Samarkhand had been thwarted.

The Mughal emperors held court in five cities: Kabul in Afghanistan, Lahore in Pakistan, and Delhi, Agra and Fatehpur Sikri in India. These cities’ buildings were designed to be physical manifestations of the Mughals’ power over landscape and subjects alike, deliberately espousing through their structures the Mughals’ imperial ideology. Genuine connoisseurship ran hand in hand with clever propaganda, reminding us of the Mughal emperors’ innovative techniques for drawing together under one crown  the diverse peoples of the Indian Subcontinent.

The Mughals were patrilineal descendants of the Central Asian ruler Amir Timur. They believed that their right to rule the subcontinent derived both from Timur’s 14^th century conquests and their own military gains. The Mughals’ Timurid heritage influenced their architectural style in a number of ways. Like their ancestors, the early Mughals were constantly on campaign so a peripatetic court was in order. Courtyards and walled gardens were favoured as tented cities could be erected within their confines. The entire imperial household moved en-masse around the country so that no part of the imperial structure was left vulnerable to seizure.  

The first Mughal emperor, Babur (r.1526-30), deplored India, describing it in the Baburnama as “charmless and disorderly”. Attempting to recreate his beloved gardens in Kabul, one of his first acts was to construct a walled garden in Agra. The garden gave Babur peace of mind as he was able to demonstrate his capacity to establish order in a seemingly wild and uncivilized land. Mughal gardens were designed to evoke the Garden of Paradise described in the Old Testament and in the Koran. Areas within the garden were divided by paved walkways, fruit trees provided shade and sustenance, and fountains were filled with water.

The Timurids’ other major contribution to Mughal architecture was invocations of the legendary King Solomon. In Delhi and Agra, the Mughals constructed multi-columned halls reminiscent of Solomon’s, and the image of Solomon’s throne, which the Bible describes as being multi-stepped and carved with numerous mechanical birds and beasts, was replicated by the Mughals. Emperors Jahangir (r.1605-27) and Shah Jahan (r.1628-58) constructed their own throne of Solomon, invoking his memory through emulation of his court so that subjects would equate Solomon’s just rule with that of their own Mughal monarch.

The majority of Mughal subjects were, unlike their rulers, non-Muslim and had little previous connection with the Timurids. In order to ensure the long term survival of their empire, the Mughals had to integrate the indigenous elite, show religious tolerance towards the wider populace, and to portray their right to rule as absolute. 

Akbar the Great (r.1556-1605) brought nobles and local rulers from across his empire to court and gave them posts within the administration. They included Persian nobles, Rajput princes, and other Muslim rulers with whom he wished to form alliances. Akbar created a strict hierarchy where everyone was ultimately answerable to him. He developed elaborate court rituals, necessitating the construction of separate audience halls for public and private affairs, a multitude of courtyards, and wide, straight streets for processions of elephants and horses. 

In Hindu kingdoms,  it was believed that devotees were blessed by the mere sight of religious idols and monarchs. The Mughals adopted darshan (‘viewing’) and appeared on ornate balconies before crowds gathered in the courtyard below. The position of the balcony was reminiscent of the qibla in a mosque, so the emperor was able to draw simultaneously on both Hindu and Muslim religious traditions in his self-deification. The scope of Akbar’s religious appeal widened further when he constructed the debating hall at Fatehpur Sikri. The building was designed as a multi-faith meeting place where all religious leaders could meet to discuss theological matters. Symbols representing each religion were incorporated into the hall’s stonework. Akbar believed himself to be an intermediary between men and God, and clear demonstration of his understanding of all different theological doctrines was integral to this.

The reputation of the Mughal court attracted influential visitors from across the globe. Travelers, traders, physicians and missionaries were entranced by the Mughals’ legendary wealth and brought with them knowledge and customs from Europe, Persia and China. Among the most important gifts from Europe was an illustrated copy of the 1569 Polyglot Bible and engravings of biblical scenes. They were presented to Akbar by Jesuit missionaries in an attempt to convert him to Christianity.

The Jesuits’ gifts engendered in the Mughals a taste for western art. Inspired by European works, Mughal artists began to incorporate images of Christ and Mary in their wall paintings, carvings and manuscripts. Symbols such as the halo, the lion and the lamb, the globe and the hour glass all made their way into Mughal design to show both the emperors’ religious legitimacy but also their temporal power. Use of Christian iconography demonstrated the emperors’ semi-divine status, their cosmopolitanism, and their ability to subordinate Christian Europe beneath their imperial power and personal religion.

Mughal capitals were reflected the change in priority from military conquest to the stable governance of a diverse population. Whilst early capitals required outdoor space for tents, later architects replaced these designs with permanent, highly decorative structures for courtly ceremonies. The Mughals’ Timurid heritage merged with indigenous traditions to deify the emperor in the minds of his subjects and to give him political and cultural legitimacy. Christian iconography was manipulated by Mughal artists, gaining political connotations that further enhanced state propaganda of the divine emperor and his inalienable right to rule. 

If you are interested in Mughal political ideology and art, please check out my E-book http://www.amazon.co.uk/Painting-Development-Portraiture-1526-1707-ebook/dp/B005CJLAOO/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1334337521&sr=8-1

Lahore, Lahore.... A Travel Guide

IN A NUTSHELL

Who hold Zam-Zammah, that 'fire-breathing dragon', hold the Punjab, for the great green-bronze piece is always first of the conqueror's loot.

                                                                                                Rudyard Kipling, Kim

Kipling’s most famous work opens outside Lahore Museum with his boy protagonist, Kim, illicitly straddling the giant cannon, Zam-Zammah. The city was Kipling’s own childhood stomping ground, and all those who read his picaresque novel cannot fail to be charmed by his evocative descriptions of Lahore.

Today the city is a bustling metropolis and Pakistan’s undisputed cultural capital. Two millennia of history compete for space with world-class cricket stadiums, brand new mosques and the city’s eponymous film industry: Lollywood. The city’s elite hangs out at the colonial era Country Club and brand new Oasis golf resort, whilst bright young things party the night away at secret nightclubs and underground raves. 

GETTING THERE AND AROUND

Lahore’s Allama Iqbal International Airport is Pakistan’s second largest, and it is well connected to Europe and the Middle East. PIA also flies to Bangkok, Beijing and Tokyo, though these flights are a little less regular. Pakistan’s train network is a relic of the British but is still a cheap and relatively efficient way to get around the country.

Within Lahore, buses and auto-rickshaws are inexpensive, though the traffic is something to behold and you take your life in your hands by venturing out! Taxis are a little more pricey, and not always well maintained, but you’re guaranteed more personal space. Do not, however, expect a taxi driver to necessarily know his way around. Excitingly, a mass rapid transit system (MRT) is on the cards for Lahore, but it is unlikely to open before 2020.

5 PLUSES

1. Fantastic food

2. Well preserved historical buildings

3. Rich and accessible culture

4. Few other foreign tourists

5. English widely spoken 

5 MINUSES

1. Over-population

2. Chaotic traffic

3. Sporadic security concerns

4. Smog

5. Pakistan is dry

10 MUST-SEES AND MUST-DOS

1. Shalimar Gardens: Lahore is known as the City of Gardens, and the Shalimar is undoubtedly its most famous. Laid out during the reign of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628-58), the garden is on a north-south axis with three terraces, pavilions and baths, 410 fountains and a complex irrigation system. The garden is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

2. Food Street: Foodies flock to Gawal Mandi like mosquitos around a lamp. Pedestrianised after dark, numerous small cafes spill out tables and chairs onto the street, and serve a mouth-watering array of traditional Punjabi meals and snacks. Kebabs spitting on the open grills smell divine, whilst biryanis, fried fish and haleem (thick soup with lentils, meat and grain) are also perennial favourites 

3. Anarkali: Lahore’s oldest bazaar, which sells traditional foods, embroideries and cloth, takes its name from a slave girl who was supposedly buried alive by Emperor Akbar for having an affair with his son (the future Jahangir). Her octagonal mausoleum is still here, and it is in Anarkali you will most likely catch a glimpse or hear the jingling bells of her modern counterparts, Lahore’s dancing girls.

4. Badshahi Mosque: The largest mosque in the world until 1986, the Badshahi was constructed in 1671 at the order of Emperor Aurangzeb. Each of the mosque’s four minarets is taller than the Taj Mahal, and it is capable of accommodating some 100,000 worshippers thanks to its vast sandstone courtyard. The mosque’s small museum contains relics of the Prophet Muhammed, his cousin Ali and his daughter Fatima. Exceptionally busy on Fridays. 

5. Lahore Fort: Lahore’s other UNESCO World Heritage Site. Archaeologists have found remains from the 11^th century AD  within the grounds, but the current structure dates from the late 1500s. Of particular interest are the impressive Alamgiri Gate, the Naulakha Pavilion, and original wall paintings. Tip: watch a majestic sunset over the fort from the rooftop of Cooco’s restaurant (see below). 

6. Minar-e Pakistan: This 92m high tower in Iqbal Park commemorates the Muslim League’s first request for an independent Pakistan back in 1940. Constructed from white marble, the minaret is engraved with Quranic verses, the text of the Lahore Resolution, Pakistan’s National Anthem, poetic couplets by Allama Iqbal, and excerpts from speeches by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan.

7. Lahore Museum: This impressive red sandstone building on The Mall was the architectural centrepiece of colonial Lahore. Built in the so-called Mughal-Gothic style, Kipling’s father, John Lockwood Kipling, was its most famous curator. The collection includes Graeco-Buddhist sculptures, Hellenistic and Mughal coins, pottery and paintings as well, of course, as the infamous cannon, Zam-Zammah. Check out the virtual tour at www.lahoremuseum.org.

8. Data Darbar: One of the oldest shrines in the Indian Subcontinent, the Data Darbar houses the remains of the 11^th century Sufi saint Abul Hassan Ali Hajvery. A popular pilgrimage site for both Muslims and Hindus prior to Partition,  the shrine is particularly atmospheric during religious holidays when it is decorated with lights and food is served to hundreds of people, accompanied by  the dulcet tones of Sufi singers and their instruments. Visitors of all religions are welcome to watch or join in the dancing.

9. Samadhi of Ranjit Singh: Known as the ‘Lion of the Punjab’, Ranjit Singh was crowned in 1801 as the leader of the Sikh Empire. A fierce and capable warrior, Ranjit Singh is best known for his patronage of the Golden Temple in Amritsar but also for annexing Kashmir. When he died in 1848, he was buried beneath this ornate tomb, his ashes encased in a lotus shaped urn. The pietra dura work in the marble pavilion is especially fine.

10. Wagah Border: 26km east of Lahore is the Indo-Pakistani border. Every day since 1959, Wagah has hosted an elaborate and nationalism-fuelled retreat ceremony, where soldiers from both sides compete to see who can shout loudest and goose step highest.  Join the good-natured crowds of supporters, wave your flag, and chant until you are hoarse. Note that spectators on the Pakistani side are segregated by sex. 

5 ESSENTIAL EATS

1. Cooco’s: A Lahore institution, this rooftop restaurant overlooks both the Badshahi Mosque and Lahore Fort. Owner Iqbal Hussain’s paintings and objet d’art provide plenty of food for thought, and hearty meals are winched up the outside of the building in an earthenware pot before serving. Get there early to guarantee a table and relax as you watch the sunset.

Roshnai Gate, Fort Rd

2. Bundu Khan: Ever popular (and now with a sister-branch in London), Bundu Khan serves up gloriously rich mutton in gravy, brain masala (far tastier than it sounds) and other spicy treats. Take away is available at lunchtime.

The Mall

3. Dumpukht: Named for the favoured cuisine of the Nawabs of Avadh, this is indeed a restaurant fit for a king! Delicately flavoured dishes such as the Raan-e-Dum Pukht (a leg of lamb marinated and stuffed with onions, cheese, and mint) are a pleasant change to the usual Punjabi dishes.

Pearl Continental Hotel, The Mall

4. Food Street: Follow your nose, grab a table wherever you can, and sink your teeth into divine mutton and chicken kebabs, washed down with a refreshing lassi (yoghurt drink) or Kashmiri tea. 

Gowal Mandi, Anarkali

5. Iceberg: This American-style ice cream parlour offers the perfect retreat from the heat and chaos outside. There are 20+ flavours of ice cream and frozen yoghurt, and a bewildering array of sauces and toppings.

Allama Iqbal Rd

5 ESSENTIAL STAYS

1. Avari: Set back from The Mall, this award-winning hotel is surrounded by gorgeous and surprisingly peaceful gardens. Regularly rated as the best hotel in Pakistan, guests are warmly welcomed and have every amenity at their fingertips. Doubles from US $190 per night. The Mall. www.avari.com

2. Pearl Continental is a 500-room megalith with an impressive modern façade and atrium.  Primarily used by business travellers and wedding parties, the hotel is pricy for Lahore but appropriately luxurious. Rates from US $190 per night. The Mall. www.pchotels.com

3. Park Plaza: A new addition to the chain, the Park Plaza is an archetypal international hotel with neutral décor and pleasant, English-speaking staff. The his and hers spas are an added bonus. Doubles from US $125 per night. MM Alam Rd. www.parkplaza.com

4. Hospitality Inn Lahore: Formerly the Holiday Inn, this conveniently located property has 120 immaculate rooms, five restaurants and cafes, and friendly, attentive staff. There is also a beauty salon and health club on site. Rates from US $110 per night. 26/26 Egerton Rd. www.hospitalityinnlahore.com

5. The Residency describes itself as the first boutique hotel in Lahore. What you’ll find is an imaginatively presented modern property with a slightly colonial feel. Staff are attentive to detail and security is reassuringly tight. Gulberg V. www.rh.com.pk